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The Fascinating World of Bioluminescence
The Fascinating World of Bioluminescence
Observations of glowing animals, plants, and fungi date back thousands of years, with early references as far back as Aristotle (384–322 BCE) and even earlier. The first comprehensive scientific overview was published by T. L. Phipson in 1862 in his book "Phosphorescence – or the Emission of Light by Minerals, Plants, and Animals," a text still relevant and readable today. Historically, all forms of biological light emission were grouped under the term "phosphorescence." Modern science, however, distinguishes clearly between phenomena based on their underlying physical and chemical mechanisms.
Today, we specifically use the term bioluminescence for the emission of visible light resulting from chemical reactions within living organisms. Such reactions, when occurring outside biological systems, are termed chemiluminescence.
In 2024 we wrote a comprehensive review with the aim of introducing people new to the topic to the wonders and also the underlying chemistry of bioluminescence.
You can find it open-access via the following link: S. Schramm, D. Weiß, ChemBioChem 2024, 25, e202400106. Link
Bioluminescence is known to mankind since several millenia. Written reorts date back until Artistole - De Anima: "Some objects of sight which in light are invisible, in darkness stimulate the sense; that is, things that appear fiery or shining. This class of objects has no simple common name, but instances of it are fungi, flesh, heads, scales, and eyes of fish." Especially in older literature, one can find beautiful illustrations of bioluminescence, such as this one from the Brockhaus Encyclopedia (14th edition, 1894-1896, Vol. 17 Supplement)
Bioluminescence is widespread and diverse, especially abundant in marine organisms such as mollusks, jellyfish, and echinoderms. Within the tree of life, bioluminescence is found among fungi, bacteria, insects, centipedes, crustaceans, and fish—but intriguingly, it is absent from plants, spiders, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. The reasons why certain taxonomic groups completely lack bioluminescent species remain unclear. Image from our 2024 review.
The evolutionary origins of bioluminescence are also uncertain, though a compelling hypothesis suggests that bioluminescence evolved as an adaptive response to the emergence of oxygen—a reactive and initially toxic chemical for early anaerobic organisms. Given that all known bioluminescent reactions require molecular oxygen, this theory is supported by evidence that the ability to produce biological light evolved independently multiple times across different lineages.
Bioluminescence serves a variety of ecological roles. In marine environments, organisms use bioluminescence for attracting mates, luring prey, deterring predators, camouflage, and deception. On land, the role of bioluminescence primarily involves sexual communication among species, such as fireflies, and potentially attracting prey. However, it is important to remember that not all biochemical reactions producing light necessarily have a specific evolutionary purpose. Light emission can also simply be a byproduct of metabolic processes, persisting as long as it poses no disadvantage to the organism.
Chemistry and Biochemistry of Bioluminescence
Chemistry and Biochemistry of Bioluminescence
Fundamental biochemical research on bioluminescence was pioneered by Raphael Dubois (1849–1929). Through his studies on the bioluminescent clam Pholas dactylus, Dubois identified two key components required for light production: luciferase, an enzyme that catalyzes the reaction with oxygen, and luciferin, a substrate oxidized to produce excited-state oxyluciferin. The energy released as oxyluciferin returns to its ground state is emitted as a photon of visible light.
These biochemical reactions share common photophysical processes characteristic of luminescence, often requiring cofactors such as ATP or Ca²⁺ ions. Although historically praised for exceptionally high quantum yields, recent research has clarified that even nature's biochemical efficiencies adhere strictly to fundamental physical laws.
All known bioluminescence systems share a common feature: the presence of a high-energy intermediate containing a peroxo-bond. The decomposition of this intermediate leads to the chemical generation of electronically excited states, which ultimately produce light. This recurring motif supports the hypothesis that bioluminescence may have originally evolved as a byproduct of oxygen detoxification. Image from our 2024 review.
Firefly-Bioluminescence
Firefly-Bioluminescence
The probably best studied bioluminescence systems is firefly. It has also been the bioluminescence system where we contributed by active research in the past the most. Fireflies (family Lampyridae) provide one of the most studied and fascinating examples of bioluminescence. Around 2,000 firefly species exist worldwide, predominantly in tropical and subtropical regions, with a few species present in Central Europe. The North American firefly (Photinus pyralis) has been central to our understanding of bioluminescence, elucidating the key biochemical reactions involving luciferin and luciferase.
In fireflies, bioluminescence occurs through the oxidation of luciferin catalyzed by luciferase, forming an excited-state oxyluciferin, which emits visible light as it returns to its ground state. Detailed studies revealed the mechanism involves ATP-mediated phosphorylation, electron transfer, and formation of a high-energy intermediate known as a 1,2-dioxetanone. Advances in genetic engineering now allow luciferase production without harvesting fireflies, preserving natural populations.
Firefly bioluminescence is widely applied in biochemical and medical research due to its sensitivity in detecting ATP, making it invaluable for hygiene controls, pathogen detection, and as a reporter gene. Chemically modified luciferins facilitate deeper tissue imaging and inspire innovations in OLED technology.
We have compiled an extra üage covering the firefly bioluminescence in detail:
Bioluminescence mechanism of the firefly system. The high energy-intermediate represents a 1,2-dioxetanone. Its decomposition producing excited state oxyluciferin molecules, which decay back to their ground state under the emission of light. Image from our 2024 review.
Top: Fireflies that can be found in germany, Left: Lampyris noctiluca Right: Lamprohiza splendidula. Image from our 2024 review.
Bottom: A meadow full of firefly, image taken by the artist Pete Mauney
Observing and Experimenting with Bioluminescence
Observing and Experimenting with Bioluminescence
Observing bioluminescence firsthand can be challenging, as most bioluminescent organisms inhabit marine environments. Night diving offers an extraordinary chance to witness the bright blue flashes emitted by creatures like the ostracod Vargula hilgendorfii. Alternatively, marine aquariums, such as those in San Diego or the Monterey Bay Aquarium in California, provide excellent opportunities for observing bioluminescent marine life.
On land, Europe offers opportunities to see bioluminescent fireflies, glowing fungi such as the honey fungus (Armillaria mellea), or the olive mushroom (Omphalotus olearius). Even centipedes and certain fungus gnats (e.g., Ceroplatus testaceus) exhibit lesser-known terrestrial bioluminescence.
For those interested in experimenting at home, cultivating bioluminescent fungi such as Panellus stipticus is straightforward, providing an accessible way to explore this captivating natural phenomenon.
A piece of oak wood, about 10 cm tall, inoculated with Panellus stipticus spores by day and by night. In the dark, a slight green glow can be seen with a well dark-adapted eye. The photos were taken with an exposure time of several seconds. In reality the light emission is unfortunately not so bright.
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